Without data, it is difficult for scientists to know both the current and previous state of the environment (one might consider this the baseline state, but there can be issues with that – see our previous article on the blog!). This makes it difficult to identify potentially harmful changes that could be occurring or even monitor progress of implemented solutions. Missing or unavailable information also hinders the ability of researchers to model future scenarios and make predictions. Without data, scientists cannot make specialized recommendations or inform policymakers of risks associated with various pathways. Despite this importance, data scarcity remains a problem in environmental science [3], partly due to a lack of access to existing data as well as insufficient monitoring or interpretation capacity.

What can help address this problem?

Lack of access to existing environmental or ecological data can be solved by things like supporting data sharing and open data or following FAIR principles [4]. With data readily available, it can continue to be useful through time to a wider group who may provide reanalysis or reinterpretation. This can also allow for previously existing data to be integrated into new data, thus providing the opportunity for more robust results and conclusions. Additionally, in science it is important to make data available so that results can be replicated and trusted [4, 5]. Another part of the answer is to ensure that conditions are right for collection of new data [3]. This means enhancing capacity building and technology transfer, particularly for researchers in vulnerable areas.

Yet, the investigation of many environmental problems requires both the continual collection and interpretation of very large amounts of data, in some cases from very different parts of the world – which can be a struggle for even the best equipped teams of professional researchers, as they face limitations in their available time and numbers. In such cases, so-called citizen scientists can step in.

Citizen Science: the public can be part of the solution

An increase in the availability and sophistication of technology, data storage and sharing options via the internet, and education have opened possibilities for a wider range of participation in the scientific process. This has contributed to the growth of citizen science, which is a term that describes when the public engages in scientific research. Through citizen science, individuals across many sectors or areas can collaborate with scientists and/or each other to contribute to an increase in scientific knowledge across social science, the arts, technology, medicine, or natural science. It allows participants to take part in the scientific process and creates other co-benefits for citizen scientist participants as well as researchers [6, 8].

Citizen science can provide opportunity to fill gaps in data collection across time and space. In the environmental area, volunteers might participate by submitting observations or tracking abundance of species, taking samples to determine water quality, interpreting images, or other tasks. Yet, participants’ roles may extend past data collection as well. Citizens may help by identifying needs or problems that research could focus on, refining scientific questions, stimulating engagement within the public and among stakeholders, and otherwise providing input from perspectives that often go underrepresented, including from indigenous and local community members [6, 7]. For instance, in community-led citizen science (CCS), participants – aided by professional scientists – direct their own projects, which provides both scientific understanding as well as empowerment and local ownership of the initiative and its outcomes [6].

One important CCS example lies in the Amazon, where the construction of the Belo Monte hydroelectric project has severely impacted the flow of the Xinga river since 2016. This has resulted in the loss of breeding habitat and the decimation of fish populations on which local communities like the Juruna rely. The Juruna reached out to scientists to help them document changes in the river’s fish and turtle populations. This collaboration has resulted in not only scientific publications, but has additionally helped the Juruna to document what has been lost to them culturally so that their history is not forgotten. The data have been used to propose more ecologically-sound water regimes- though the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources is still reviewing the proposal- and have also fuelled lawsuits against Norte Energia, the company responsible for Belo Monte [9].

These projects are thus beneficial for both the participants and the professional scientists, resulting in opportunities for problem-solving, learning, and public action as well as the generation of data and the publication of research findings. Outcomes of citizen science can also inform management, conservation actions, education, or policy decisions [6, 7].

Nevertheless, it is important to note that methods of citizen science are not compatible with all research projects, particularly when an initiative requires expensive equipment, utilizes complex or rigorous methods for data collection, or calls for a large time commitment. Concerns may also arise about the data generated by citizen science. For instance, sampling bias may be a problem if data is collected opportunistically, leading to an overrepresentation of data from some areas versus others. Citizen scientists may make mistakes in identification, be inconsistent in following protocol or using equipment, or lack neutrality, which would all impact the data and how it can be used. However, by implementing sufficient training for participants, validation and filtering procedures, statistical approaches, and upholding inclusiveness, these issues can be minimized [6].

The benefits of citizen science are also being recognized by governments, who are increasingly supporting this approach. For example, in 2022 Germany introduced the Citizen Science Strategie 2030 (German language version here). This strategy includes recommendations and outlines opportunities to develop citizen science in Germany and interlink it within both science and society [10]. Though this method is not appropriate for every research question, it is increasingly recognized as a useful and enriching approach that can, when properly executed, produce a variety of rewards for stakeholders across disciplines.

If this article has made you interested in learning more about citizen science, you might be glad to know that the University of Zurich and ETH Zurich will be hosting a Citizen Science Summer School from 04.06.2023 – 09.06.2023. Applications are now open until 01.03.2023!

References

[1] IPCC, 2021: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3−32. Link here.

[2] Pecl, G., Araújo, M.B., Bell, J.D., et al. 2017. Biodiversity redistribution under climate change: Impacts on ecosystems and human well-being. Science (355) 6332. Link here.

[3] Hochkirch, A., Samways, M.J., Gerlach, J. 2020. A strategy for the next decade to address data deficiencyin neglected biodiversity. Conservation Biology 35 (2): 502–509. Link here.

[4] Tedersoo, L., Küngas, R., Oras, E. et al. 2021. Data sharing practices and data availability upon request differ across scientific disciplines. Sci Data (8) 192. Link here.

[5] Miyakawa, T. 2020. No raw data, no science: another possible source of the reproducibility crisis. Mol Brain (13) 24. Link here.

[6] Fraisl, D., Hager, G., Bedessem, B., et al. 2022. Citizen science in environmental and ecological sciences. Nat Rev Methods Primers (2) 64. Link here.

[7] McKinley, D.C., Miller-Rushing, A.J., Ballard, H.L., et al. 2017. Citizen science can improve conservation science, natural resource management, and environmental protection. Biological Conservation (208): 15-28. Link here.

[8] ECSA (European Citizen Science Association). 2015. Ten Principles of Citizen Science. Berlin. Link here.

[9] Moutinho, S. 2023. “A river’s pulse”. Science (379) 6627: 18-23. Link here.

[10] Bonn, A., Brink, W., Hecker, S., et al. 2022. White Paper Citizen Science Strategy 2030 for Germany. Helmholtz Association, Leibniz Association, Fraunhofer Society, universities and non-academic institutions. Link here.

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The Ocean: benefits, challenges, and solutions

Our Blue Planet, and all of its life, depends on a healthy ocean. Covering over 70% of Earth’s surface, the ocean plays a key role in regulating the climate, absorbing and transporting heat via sea currents from the equator to the poles; and it also produces half of the world’s oxygen. Under climate change, scientists estimate that the ocean absorbs at least 25% of CO2 emissions and has captured 90% of excess warming due to greenhouse gasses over the last 50 years [1,2]. Furthermore, the ocean is home to around 250,000 described species, with scientists estimating that another 700,000 are undiscovered [3]. Such diversity of life is possible due to the array of rich habitats within marine and coastal ecosystems, including coral reefs, seagrass meadows, kelp forests, mangrove forests, as well as coastal shores.

People – and economies – also directly rely on the ocean. It is estimated that around 680 million people live on the coasts, and this number is expected to grow [4]. Additionally, the livelihoods of over 3 billion people depend on the ocean. Marine and coastal areas contribute significantly to the food, tourism and recreation, and transport industries. The global market value of ocean resources and its associated sectors is estimated to be around US$2.5 trillion per year [5].

Yet, the triple planetary crisis of climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution is causing ocean health to decline, putting these benefits at risk. Rising temperatures are contributing to impacts like sea level rise and marine heatwaves, while the absorption of excess CO2 leads to ocean acidification [4]. Excess nutrient pollution is leading to algal blooms, which can produce harmful toxins, as well as dead zones where there is no oxygen, which can grow to thousands of km² in size. Increased production, consumption, and improperly managed disposal of plastic pollution has resulted in millions of tons of plastic reaching the ocean yearly (up to 12 million in 2010) [6]. Wildlife can then become tangled in debris, or ingest it and starve with stomachs full of plastic. Unsustainable use of ocean resources, including practices such as overfishing, have also decimated wildlife populations and ecosystems.

To combat problems like these, the United Nations embedded a goal supporting Life Below Water within the Sustainable Development Goals. Specifically, Goal 14 looks to “conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development”. This Goal was formed with the recognition that the ocean and its resources represent a tremendous opportunity for people and the planet – if we properly use them.

Enhancing SDG 14: The UN Ocean Conference

Clearly, supporting the realization of SDG 14 is crucial for sustainable development. To reinforce this objective, the UN has held the Ocean Conferences. The first Ocean Conference took place from 5 to 9 June 2017 in New York City, sounding the alarm about the state of our oceans while providing a space to discuss solutions and build partnerships. Additionally, from 27 June to 2 July 2022, over 6,000 participants – made up of individuals from civil society, the private sector, states and governments, the scientific community, and more – gathered in Lisbon, Portugal for the 2022 United Nations Ocean Conference. I had the opportunity to support the Conference from the preparation phase through its conclusion in Lisbon.

Preparations

Such a large event does not happen without a lengthy preparatory process. My main role was to provide assistance to the Sustainable Development Officers in the UN Division for Sustainable Development Goals (Department of Economic and Social Affairs) as they worked to actualize the Conference. For me, this looked like attending meetings and taking notes on logistic and substantive aspects of the Conference, as well as related topics. Along with other students, I prepared draft documents such as summaries, remarks, and presentations for supervisors to review, and provided virtual support such as email correspondence, creating or uploading documents, maintaining databases, checking registrations, and updating the Conference website as needed.

Outcomes

Political Declaration

A main outcome of the 2022 UN Ocean Conference is the Political Declaration, “Our Ocean, Our Future, Our Responsibility”. During the preparatory process, co-facilitators held consultations with Member States to get their feedback as the draft document was revised. The document contains a list of science-based and innovative actions needed to support the ocean and those who rely on it for sustainable development. In the end, the final draft was accepted and successfully adopted at the 2022 UN Ocean Conference.

Plenary sessions and partnership dialogues

The Conference programme included both plenary sessions and eight interactive dialogues. During the plenary sessions, Member States and other stakeholders could make interventions. This provided a forum for sharing their experiences, problems, solutions, and more. The eight interactive dialogues centered around different ocean and SDG-related topics. For each of these Dialogues, a panel discussion with experts in each field was held, followed by a discussion period where stakeholders could give statements.

A summary for each plenary session and interactive dialogue was to be prepared for inclusion into the final Conference report. Part of my responsibility on the ground was to provide support by taking notes at these sessions and submitting these to the lead, who would then prepare the summary for approval.

Enhancing ocean action: voluntary commitments

To recover and retain the health of the ocean, actors make voluntary commitments to support the implementation of SDG 14. Any initiative which contributes to the advancement of SDG 14 may be submitted as a voluntary commitment. These projects, either carried out by individuals or as partnerships within or across sectors, represent concrete steps taken by stakeholders to create positive change in the ocean and to reverse its decline. You can find information regarding any of these initiatives within the registry of voluntary commitments, which houses all commitments made since the first Ocean Conference in 2017. Currently, the number of commitments stands at 2,093.

Do these commitments make a difference? A 2021 analysis of their impacts found that voluntary commitments have led to at least 3.3 million km2 of new marine protected areas. Many litter-collecting and awareness-raising initiatives have been held, and governments have implemented bans on single-use plastics under the voluntary commitment framework. Enhanced partnership and scientific cooperation have led to benefits in capacity development, technology development and transfer, and ocean governance. These positive impacts will increase, given the many strong commitments made at the 2022 UN Ocean Conference.

My peers and I assisted with reviewing commitments and corresponding with voluntary commitment holders in case of any issues. We also kept track of the approved voluntary commitments for inclusion into the report of the Conference.

Conclusions

Through this experience, I was able to learn both about ocean issues by listening and speaking directly to top experts across disciplines. I heard how these issues were impacting people and different ways to tackle them; as well as how to sustainably use the opportunities of the ocean. I saw concrete action, partnerships, and cross-sectoral collaboration, and diplomacy driving innovative solutions through the voluntary commitments and the adoption of the outcome document by governments. I also gained insight into the interconnections between the SDGs and saw this reflected throughout the Conference and its lead up.

Overall, being able to take part in the Ocean Conference was a valuable experience, made particularly rewarding by the fact that I was involved during (a portion of) the preparation through the conclusion of the Conference itself. This allowed me to see how the scientific and environmental dimension mixes with the economic, social, and political aspects of sustainable development at different stages to ultimately culminate in the Ocean Conference and its outcomes. At the same time, I had the chance to see first-hand how the UN supports and facilitates all these pieces, and more, for sustainable development.

References

[1] Zanna, L., Khatiwala, S., Gregory, J. M., Ison, J., & Heimbach, P. 2019. Global reconstruction of historical ocean heat storage and transport. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(4): 1126–1131. Link

[2] Watson, A.J., Schuster, U., Shutler, J.D. et al. 2020. Revised estimates of ocean-atmosphere CO₂ flux are consistent with ocean carbon inventory. Nature Communications (11): 4422. Link

[3] W. Appeltans, S.T. Ahyong, G. Anderson, M.V. Angel, T. Artois, N. Bailly, R. Bamber, A. Barber, I. Bartsch, A. Berta, et al. 2012. The magnitude of global marine species diversity. Current Biology. 22: 2189-2202. Link

[4] IPCC, 2019: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, 755 pp. Link

[5] UNCTAD. 2021. Advancing the potential of sustainable ocean-based economies: trade trends, market drivers and market access. Link

[6] Jambeck J. R. Geyer R. Wilcox C. Siegler T. R. Perryman M. Andrady A. Narayan R. Law K. L. 2015. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science 347(6223): 768-771 pp. Link

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The answer might have something to do with baselines – more specifically, Shifting Baselines Syndrome (SBS), a term coined by scientist Daniel Pauly [2]. Pauly, a fisheries scientist himself, pointed out that fisheries scientists tend to take the stock characteristics from the beginning of their career as a baseline condition against which future catch characteristics are compared. When each generation starts their career, stocks have declined – but a new baseline for comparison is set, which leads to a basically unnoticed and gradual disappearance of species [3]. This phenomenon can also be applied more generally: people tend to set baselines for nature based on their early experiences with it. Over time, with a lack of memory, experience, or knowledge, the expectations and “acceptable” condition for the natural environment shifts. What your grandparents would consider degraded might be considered natural by your children. As Pauly notes in his talk, it is in this way that we transform the world – but we don’t remember it. This has impacts on conservation, restoration, and management.

How can we set appropriate goals and judge progress without an appropriate baseline?

Depending on the baseline, “success stories” may be viewed quite differently. One example would be the bison in North America [4]. The bison populations were driven to near extinction by the late 19th century, mainly due to hunting, and numbered less than 1,000 individuals. Today, the estimates lie at 500,000 bison, and this recovery is regarded as a major success conservationists [5]. Yet, the population of bison previously numbered in the tens of millions, and they now occupy less than 1% of their original habitat range [6].

How much does this even matter?

You might be thinking: the world is different now, and ecosystems are not likely to return to long-past baselines anyway. Seeing that today’s conservation efforts are influencing positive change to any degree gives feedback that things can be made better, and that actions make a difference. This might be true, but we must also be aware of what we have lost so that we are not complacent with “miserable leftovers,” as Pauly terms them. With SBS, there is a danger that we accept these leftovers because we do not know that the situation was ever different. Eventually, if we lose these leftovers, even this will not be perceived as a big loss. In this way, SBS accustoms us to progressive environmental degradation, leading to a shift in what is considered desirable, or even worth protecting, in the natural world.

Are there solutions?

One way to combat shifting baseline is to diversify sources of data in science. More methodological scientific record-keeping often does not extend much further than the last 50 or 100 years. By carefully incorporating other sources, such as financial logs, anecdotes, art and literature, or even genetic and archeological data, more information about the past can be understood and knowledge about the past can be preserved [7]. This information is not only useful for scientists or conservation managers – it can also be used for education in the general public. This is key for making people more familiar with the natural environment as well as ensuring that important knowledge about its condition through time is not lost. Another way to help is by supporting people’s connection to the environment. This could be through engaging with citizen science, which not only allows for data collection but also gives the opportunity for non-scientists to interact with nature [3].

[1] Ellis, E., Gauthier, N., Goldewijk, K., et al. (2021). People have shaped most of terrestrial nature for at least 12,000 years. PNAS 118 (17): e2023483118.

[2] Pauly, D. (1995). Anecdotes and shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10 (10:430).

[3] Soga, M. & Gaston, K. (2018). Shifting baseline syndrome: causes, consequences, and implications. Front. Ecol. Environ, 16(4): 222-230.

[4] Mehrabi, Z. & Naidoo, R. (2022). Shifting baselines and biodiversity success stories. Nature 601: E17–E18.

[5] Sanderson, E., Redford, K, Weber, B., et al. (2008). The Ecological Future of the North American Bison:Conceiving Long-Term, Large-Scale Conservation of Wildlife. Conservation Biology 22(2): 252 – 262.

[6] Boyd, D., & Gates, C. (2006). A Brief Review of the Status of Plains Bison in North America. JOW 45(2): 15 – 21.

[7] Pinnegar, J. & Engelhard, G. (2008). The ‘shifting baseline’ phenomenon: a global perspective. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries 18: 1–16.

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        Water is also a vehicle for many bacteria, protozoa and viral pathogens, which can cause diseases associated with gastroenteritis, and even other severe illnesses, such as meningitis and hepatitis [2]. Furthermore, with climate change influencing higher frequency of extreme events, the quantity and quality of water is compromised by both droughts and floods. Hence, the Sustainable Development Goal 6 aims to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, encompassing six targets to achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water, as well as sanitation and hygiene, improving water quality, increasing water efficiency in the different sectors, implementation of an integrated water resources management, and protection and restoration of ecosystems [3].

Clean Water, Sanitation, and Health

        In 2020, officials recorded that 2 billion people (or 26% of the global population) lack access to safe potable water, and 3.6 billion people (or 46% of the global population) do not have access to safely managed sanitation facilities [4]. Access to clean drinking water and sanitation infrastructure is closely linked to health. In fact, a study conducted by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2012 concluded that every US$1.00 invested in sanitation would result in a return of US$5.50 in lower costs for health systems, increasing productivity, and preventing premature deaths [5]. According to WHO data, the region most affected by sanitation deficiency is Sub-Saharan Africa, where 12% of the population has access to basic sanitation facilities, 19% has a limited structure available, 31% has the use of an unimproved system, and 18% practices open defecation (Figure 1). Additionally, other regions that have less than 50% of their population with access to safely managed sanitation systems include: Latin America and Caribbean, Western Asia and Northern Africa, and Central and Southern Asia.

        Experts estimate that the absence of proper water and sanitation facilities is the leading cause of the death for 827,000 people in low- and middle- income countries [5]. The main associated diseases are diarrhoea (responsible for 60% of the aforementioned number of deaths), cholera, typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis A, and polio, besides illnesses caused by intestinal worms, such as schistosomiasis and trachoma, and malnutrition [5; 7]. A sad reality, considering that most of these diseases can be easily preventable with access to potable water and to adequate sanitation systems. For instance, improved water and sanitation access could avert the deaths of children under age 5, which is estimated to be 297,000, as well as stunting [5].

         Furthermore, the current reality of precarious water and sanitation systems in many places around the world makes the fight against the spread of COVID-19 even more challenging. Adequate hygiene measures are key to prevent the spread of the virus. However, in low income countries, there is a high deficiency in water services to provide this benefit of proper hygiene. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, only 26% of its population have access to basic handwashing facilities (soap and water), 40% have limited access (i.e. without water or soap), and 34% completely lack any service or alternative [6]. Moreover, the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA has been reported in wastewater, although the knowledge on the infectivity of the virus via wastewater is limited at the moment [8].

Clean Water, Sanitation, and Climate Change

         Climate change represents a serious threat to the provision of clean freshwater worldwide. This is largely due to the finding that climate change is projected to cause shifts in patterns of precipitation and evaporation, as well as alter the frequency and severity of extreme weather events [9, 10]. Estimates suggest that modifications in surface water area indicative of drought and flooding events are taking place in about one-fifth of the world’s river basins [11]. Droughts decrease water availability while maintaining or increasing demand, leading to water scarcity. Without the water they need for drinking, hygiene, or other uses like agriculture, people suffer. The little-available water can be more likely to contain pollutants, which can impact human health [12]. People may be driven to drink contaminated water, which results in a surge in waterborne diseases. With little or no rainfall and no water for irrigation, agriculture and livestock are negatively affected, and food supply also becomes endangered [13]. Additionally, drought-driven lack of water can cause conflict among users, as they compete for a dwindling resource. When conflict arises, it can impact and divert resources from the community’s infrastructure, including systems to maintain and sanitize fresh water [14].

         Like too little water, too much water is also a problem. When extreme events like flooding occur, there can be negative consequences for water quality and sanitation systems [15]. Flooding events have been associated with the presence of higher levels of microbes and pathogens, as well as metals and chemical and organic contaminants [16, 17]. Increased surface runoff associated with heavy rainfall can pick up sediment, contaminants like fertilizer, and other pollutants, which then might be transferred to a community’s water source [15, 17]. Heavy rainfall and flooding can also overload and damage infrastructure and sanitation systems, leaving communities with contaminated, unsafe water [18].

        Sustainable use of water resources, along with resilient infrastructure, forms a basis for gaining and maintaining access to clean water and sanitation for vulnerable communities across the world. An integrated, participatory approach to management, combined with risk assessment and adaptive solutions, including community lead and/or nature-based solutions, can increase water security and safety [19]. Strengthening cooperation between communities, countries, and other stakeholders, including with transboundary water management, promotes knowledge-sharing, harmonises the use of water resources, and ultimately augments the effectiveness of water governance. Additionally, increasing effective climate action and the protection of natural ecosystems will enhance the stability of the earth system and, thus, of water resources [20, 21].

Conclusions

         Ensuring the availability and accessibility of clean water to all, particularly in the face of ongoing climate change, is a key challenge moving forward. Access to sanitation systems and sufficient quantities of clean, quality water is paramount to human health and helps to fight diseases, including COVID-19. Prevention and investments in safely and sustainably managed water systems and sanitation facilities improve health and quality of life, besides contributing to a positive feedback in the economy for the health system. It is important to have this awareness and continue to develop technologies, form connections among various stakeholders, and engage in action in order to make progress towards the achievement of the targets of the SDG 6 for a universal and equitable access to water and sanitation systems.

References

[1] Bureau of Reclamation: Water Facts – Worldwide water supply

[2] Gall, A.M., Mariñas, B.J., Lu, Y., & Shisler, J.L. (2015). Waterborne Viruses: A Barrier to Safe Drinking Water. PLoS Pathogens, 11(6): e1004867

[3] United Nations: Goal 6 – Ensure access to water and sanitation for all

[4] United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Sustainable Development: Goal 6 – Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all

[5] World Health Organization: Sanitation Fact sheets

[6] Our World in Data: Clean water and sanitation

[7] World Health Organization: Water, sanitation and hygiene – exposure

[8] Kitajima et al. (2020). SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater: State of the knowledge and research needs. Science of The Total Environment 739: 139076.

[9] IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp.

[10] Konapala, G., Mishra, A.K., Wada, Y. et al. (2020). Climate change will affect global water availability through compounding changes in seasonal precipitation and evaporation. Nature Communications 11: 3044.

[11] UN Summary Progress Update 2021: SDG 6 – Water and sanitation for all; 

[12] Benotti, M. J., Stanford, B. D., & Snyder, S. A. (2010). Impact of drought on wastewater contaminants in an urban water supply. Journal of environmental quality 39(4): 1196–1200.

[13] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Health Implications of Drought;

[14] Levy, B. S., & Sidel, V. W. (2011). Water rights and water fights: preventing and resolving conflicts before they boil over. American journal of public health, 101(5): 778–780.

[15] Erickson, T. B., Brooks, J., Nilles, E. J., Pham, P. N., & Vinck, P. (2019). Environmental health effects attributed to toxic and infectious agents following hurricanes, cyclones, flash floods and major hydrometeorological events. Journal of toxicology and environmental health. Part B, Critical reviews 22(5-6): 157–171.

[16] Yard, E. E., Murphy, M. W., Schneeberger, C., Narayanan, J., Hoo, E., Freiman, A., Lewis, L. S., & Hill, V. R. (2014). Microbial and chemical contamination during and after flooding in the Ohio River-Kentucky, 2011. Journal of environmental science and health. Part A, Toxic/hazardous substances & environmental engineering, 49(11): 1236–1243.

[17] Sun, R., An, D., Lu, W., Shi, Y., Wang, L., Zhang, C., Zhang, P., Qi, H., & Wang, Q. (2016). Impacts of a flash flood on drinking water quality: case study of areas most affected by the 2012 Beijing flood. Heliyon 2(2): e00071.

[18] McCluskey, J. 2001.Water supply, health and vulnerability in floods. Waterlines. 19(3): 14-17.

[19] Agarwal, A., de los Angeles, M. S., Bhatia, R., Chéret, I., Davila-Poblete, S., Falkenmark, M., Gonzalez-Villarreal, F., Jønch-Clausen, T., Aït Kadi, M., Kindler, J., Rees, J., Roberts, P., Rogers, P., Solanes, M. & Wright, A. (2000). Integrated Water Resources Management. GWP-TAC Background Papers (4). 43 pp.

[20] UNECE – Water and adaptation to climate change

[21] IUCN – Water and climate chance issues brief

The post The SDGs Series (Goal 6): Clean Water and Sanitation for all appeared first on Global Change Ecology.

In the past 20 years, we have seen a continued rise in fast fashion. This term refers to mass-produced, inexpensive clothing that is intended to be stylish yet short-lived [4]. The process for traditional fashion – from design to production to distribution to sales – can take a year to a year and a half to complete and results in one or two seasonal releases per year. The same process takes anywhere from a couple weeks to four months for fast fashion, with up to 24 releases each year [1]. Using a quick-response production framework, fast fashion retailers like Zara and H&M churn out new styles as soon as they pop up on the runway or on celebrities. These offerings are changed very often in stores via a dynamic assortment process, with hundreds of new product introductions per week [1]. Together, these methods encourage frequent consumption of cheaply made, trendy garments and give consumers a sense of urgency about buying products.

We see this shift in business model reflected in consumer habits. At the basic level: the newest styles are available, prices are lower than ever, and people want to buy more. Since 2000, brands have almost doubled their garment production [2]. Between 1996-2014, there was a similar 40% increase in clothing purchases among Europeans [3]. However, all these garments are worn for 36% less time relative to 2005 [2]. In Germany, 16.7 kg of new clothing is bought per person per year, coming in second only to the UK at 26 kg, and around 11 kg is discarded [3]. This acceleration of production and consumption of products comes with a cost that is not reflected on price tags in stores.

The footprint of fast fashion

A significant amount of water is tied up in the production of your wardrobe. In 2015, the fashion industry used up 79 billion cubic meters of it [2, 3]! Much of this lies in cotton, which is the thirstiest fiber used in fashion, though water is also used in dyeing, bleaching, and other processes associated with the manufacture of clothing. With the 2,700 liters of water that is required to produce just one cotton t-shirt, a person could have drinking water for about 2.5 years [3].

Yet, production goes beyond only the use of water. The processes that fall under making fabrics and creating garments require chemical inputs and generate a lot of waste. This includes agrochemicals and petrochemicals associated with natural and synthetic production respectively, as well as solvents used in the manufacture of textiles and creation of specific garments [2]. Lax standards, poor infrastructure, and inadequate management allow for improper application techniques and untreated wastewater, which results in toxins and heavy metal inputs to the local environment [2]. Even once consumers have the garment, they can continue to pollute. Laundering clothes made from synthetic fibers like polyester releases microplastic into the environment, accounting for 35% of oceanic microplastic pollution [2, 3].

Due to their low cost and quality, high availability, and quick turnover of fashion trends, consumers view the clothing that comes as a result of the above processes as disposable. While some are recycled or resold domestically or abroad, up to 85% of textiles are sent to landfills or burned [3, 4]. As a result, we also see a lot of solid waste and associated hazards stemming from the fashion industry [4].

What about greenhouse gases? Estimates from the IPCC suggest that the fashion industry contributes up to 10% of global emissions. These emissions can come from fiber production (particularly of synthetics, which are made from oil), energy use during manufacturing and production of garments, and transport. The specific numbers can vary based on location, as various factories run on different energy sources [2]. Overall, the climate impact of fashion is greater than that of all international flights and maritime shipping combined [3].

Ultimately, industry globalization means that the consequences of fast fashion are not evenly distributed. Garment production, and all that comes along with it, tends to take place in low- or middle-income countries, while consumption is highest in western countries [2, 4]. In this way, unsafe working conditions, water scarcity, and toxic pollution – all leading to significant negative health impacts for people primarily in production countries – are fueled by consumption countries.

Shifting the trajectory

Clearly, the current path of the fashion industry is completely unsustainable and damaging to people and the environment. To address this, we need to see transformations across the board. At the international level, the UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion intends to facilitate change in the industry and turn fashion into a driver of sustainable development by engaging with outreach, knowledge sharing, active collaboration among stakeholders, and identifying synergies. Specific modifications to the current system can include the use of sustainable fabrics (like Lyocell, which is made from the cellulose of bamboo) as well as renewable energy in textile production [2, 4]. Cohesive standards for corporate sustainability should be introduced, as many companies are now taking advantage of greenwashing to market themselves or their products as “eco-friendly” without truly comparative criteria [4]. Policy can also be used as a tool to promote workers’ rights and limit environmental impacts of fast fashion [3, 4]. In line with this is the EU Commission Circular Economy Action Plan, which includes measures to support circularity in the system by improving recycling and ensuring reparability of products as well as giving consumers information on the impacts of the products they buy [3].

On the individual level, people can do their part to change the paradigm of fast fashion by extending the lives of their garments. Simply put, we should be wearing the same clothes for longer. This might involve repairing or reworking older garments. When clothing needs to be replaced, you could try thrifting for new-to-you clothing that still has plenty of life left. Another option that is gaining popularity is renting garments, which is especially useful in the case of a specific event that requires clothing that you might only wear once or twice. However, if you would rather buy fully new, try to focus on quality items, preferably made using sustainable fibers, and choose to support businesses that engage with safer practices which minimize negative impacts on people and the environment [4].

If you are interested in learning more about the impacts of fashion, check out “The Clothes We Wear,” a short documentary from Deutsch Welle, below.

References

[1] Caro F., Martínez-de-Albéniz V. 2015. Fast Fashion: Business Model Overview and Research Opportunities. In: Agrawal N., Smith S. (eds) Retail Supply Chain Management. International Series in Operations Research & Management Science, vol 223. Springer, Boston, MA. Access here.

[2] Niinimäki, K., Peters, G., Dahlbo, H. et al. 2020. The environmental price of fast fashion. Nat Rev Earth Environ 1, 189–200. Access here.

[3] European Parliament. 2021. The impact of textile production and waste on the environment. Access here.

[4] Bick, R., Halsey, E. & Ekenga, C.C. 2018. The global environmental injustice of fast fashion. Environ Health 17,92. Access here.

The post The true cost of your closet appeared first on Global Change Ecology.

In this context comes the Sustainable Development Goal 4, which aims to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. In line with the goal, the UN looks to provide inclusive, free, and high-quality pre-primary, primary, and secondary education to all by 2030. Similar support should be provided for technical, vocational, and tertiary education. A focus lies in eliminating discrimination and giving equal opportunity to all genders, people with disabilities, indigenous peoples, and those in vulnerable situations. With this, the hope is to increase literacy and numeracy, raise the number of people with relevant skills for employment, and promote sustainable development [4].

Some progress towards SDG 4 has been made. For example, the proportion of young students out of school fell from 26% in 2000 to 17% in 2018 [6]. This achievement is partly due to the contribution of SDG Good Practices. This refers to significant initiatives, solutions, and success stories that show positive and scalable results for people around the world [7]. One example is the Fit For School Programme, which supports stakeholders in the education sector to implement WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) facilities and practices in schools. Taking these steps to maintain the conditions of the school and the health of the students not only improves their lives but also enhances learning outcomes.

However, progress in SDG 4 is not coming fast enough – projections estimate that education targets will not be met by 2030 [6, 8]. A major problem is that access to education is not evenly distributed among all: vulnerable groups face many more barriers to education. For example, low-income countries show lower primary school completion rates relative to middle- or high- income countries (Figure 1). In lower income countries, the difference in education completion between the rich and poor is also greater. Furthermore, women and girls, as well as people with disabilities, have higher rates of illiteracy and school-leaving, particularly in lower-income countries and disadvantaged communities [6, 8]. This situation has only gotten worse with the COVID-19 pandemic.

In 2020, the spread of COVID-19 prompted school closures in more than 190 countries across the globe. This means that 90% of students (1.57 billion people!) were not in school at some point during the pandemic [6]. Some schools turned to remote learning during this time, though this option was not available to 500 million or more students [8]. In this respect, a socioeconomic division is also clear. For example, in 2019 only 18% of households in Africa had access to the internet (and 11% owned a computer). In contrast, 87% of European households had access the internet in the same year (and 78% owned a computer) [8]. Without these tools, distance learning is severely limited. Additionally, while physical absence impacts learning outcomes directly, it does go further. For many children, school is where they can have a meal, gain access to health services, and escape violence [8, 9]. Losing access to school thus has far-reaching impacts on the fundamental well-being of students, particularly those that are already disadvantaged.

However, in the end, the pandemic has simply exacerbated existing infrastructure problems, income inequality, and gender and disability issues that already hindered our ability to provide education to all. It is now time for us to step up to the plate and address both short-term and long-term barriers through the recovery process by “building back better” [10]. In this context, UNESCO has launched a multi-level response to protect the right to education by uniting actors, providing resources, and giving technical assistance [6]. UNICEF has also scaled up their support for education recovery [6, 9]. By supporting cooperation like this, learning from and implementing Good Practices, and prioritizing education for all, we can avoid worsening a generational catastrophe!

References

[1] Kim SW, Cho H, Kim LY. 2019. Socioeconomic Status and Academic Outcomes in Developing Countries: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Research in Education 89(6).

[2] International Center for Research on Women. 2005. A second look at the role education plays in women’s empowerment.

[3] Hjalmarsson R and Lochner L. 2012. The impact of education on crime: international evidence. CESifo DICE Report 2/2012.

[4] Hahn RA and Truman BI. 2015. Education Improves Public Health and Promotes Health Equity. International journal of health services: planning, administration, evaluation 45(4).

[5] SDG-Education 2030 Steering Committee Secretariat.Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4).

[6] United Nations. Sustainable Development Goals: Quality Education.

[7] UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2020. SDG Good Practices: A compilation of success stories and lessons learned in SDG implementation.

[8] UN Statistics Division. 2021. SDG 4 Quality Education.

[9] UNICEF. 2021. COVID-19: Missing More Than a Classroom The impact of school closures on children’s nutrition.

[10] World Bank Group. 2020. Building back better: education systems for resilience, equity, and quality in the age of COVID-19.

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Human influence on the climate is “unequivocal” and “unprecedented”
The science is clear: human activities have caused significant changes across the atmosphere, ocean, and land at a scale that is largely unparalleled in Earth’s history. Since 1750, anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have continued to rise. Currently, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are higher than any time in the last 2 million years, and other greenhouse gases like methane are at concentrations higher than any time in the last 800,000 years. These gases have – at the fastest rate in at least the last 2000 years – driven a 1.1°C increase in global surface temperature (relative to 1850-1900). This has impacted global patterns of precipitation, glacial retreat, and sea level rise, for example.

The effects are felt now, and they are pervasive. Across every inhabited region of the world, human-induced climate change has already impacted the frequency and intensity of extreme events, including heatwaves, droughts, heavy precipitation and flooding. The chance of compound extreme events, where two hazards co-occur, has also increased.

The future climate
The report explores five scenarios (or shared socio-economic pathways, SSPs), varying GHG emissions from “very high” to “very low” levels. All scenarios show continued global surface temperature increase through at least 2050. Thus, historical GHG emissions have committed us to a certain level of warming. Because of this, some changes, such as ice loss and sea level rise, will be effectively irreversible for centuries or even millennia. However, changes in the climate system, particularly extremes, are expected to become more pronounced and increase in intensity and/or frequency with each increment of global warming – so each additional degree counts. A key finding is that while the Paris agreement’s 1.5°C warming goal is surpassed by mid-century in every SSP, the global surface temperature falls back below the aforementioned threshold by 2100 under the lowest emissions scenario.

What can we do about it?
There is a near-linear relationship between carbon dioxide emissions and global warming. Therefore, the primary way to limit human-induced global warming is through reducing carbon dioxide emissions to net-zero, as well as restricting cumulative carbon dioxide emissions. Carbon dioxide removal technologies could play a role in this transition, and might even allow us to reach net negative emissions – though there are also risks involved (see our CDR blog post!). Other GHG emissions reductions will not only help to curb warming, but also reduce air pollution.

This report comes directly before the 26th UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties, set to take place in Glasgow from late October through mid-November. Though we are already locked into some changes in the climate system, we do still have the chance to limit further exacerbation of the climate crisis. However, this only occur with definitive, transformative – and immediate – action from governments, businesses, and society at large to support rapid and far-reaching transitions across sectors like energy, infrastructure, and finance. UN Secretary-General António Guterres highlights the urgency when he states: “If we combine forces now, we can avert climate catastrophe. But, as [the IPCC] report makes clear, there is no time for delay and no room for excuses. [We] count on Government leaders and all stakeholders to ensure COP26 is a success” [2].

The Summary for Policymakers of the Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report, along with additional information and materials, is available here. Explore the interactive atlas to see potential climate futures across the globe at different levels of warming.

References
[1] IPCC, 2021: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S. L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press.

[2] “Secretary-General Calls Latest IPCC Climate Report ‘Code Red for Humanity’, Stressing ‘Irrefutable’ Evidence of Human Influence”. 9 August 2021. Access here.

The post “Code Red for Humanity”: Insights from Newest IPCC Report appeared first on Global Change Ecology.

During the spring of 2021, I participated in a science school organized by the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (Bundesamt für Naturschutz, BfN). Every year since 2010, the module has accepted 25 master-level students to learn at the International Academy for Nature Conservation on the Isle of Vilm in Germany. While this year was offered virtually, the experience remained worthwhile.

Broadening knowledge

Prior to the start of the course, students were expected to complete some background reading and an assignment to ensure that everyone had a good base of knowledge. From there, we hit the ground running! We began by assessing the current state of biodiversity and discussed both marine and terrestrial conservation. We learned about conservation tools like protected areas and about the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. Students discussed how to engage in strategic conservation planning to meet goals most effectively and efficiently. We also spent some time addressing international law and the international governance framework for environmental protection, as well as discussing the social impacts of conservation.

Part of the reason that the seminar remained so engaging throughout the week was the mixed method of instruction, from lectures to panel discussions to interactive simulations. Generally, new topics were introduced with a talk from an invited expert. However, this was followed by group discussions and activities. This allowed students to actively engage with the material that had just been introduced. I found that this really made the information “stick,” while also creating connections among students.

Building a network

A strength of the module was the possibility to network. Lectures, panel discussions, and simulations run by conservation experts gave students a way to develop professional contacts for future internships, for example. Additionally, there were opportunities to interact with peers through “market place” activities, which closed each daily session. During these market place times, students shared short presentations outlining an experience they had with conservation. This took place in various breakout rooms, facilitating discussions in smaller groups.

The next Module on International Nature Conservation is expected to take place from 27 February to 5 March 2022, either online or in-person as the COVID-19 situation allows. If you are interested, then set a reminder – the upcoming application period will start in late autumn 2021.

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In their first-ever collaboration, the IPCC and the IPBES co-sponsored a workshop, bringing 50 climate and biodiversity experts together to study relationships and identify solutions for solving these crises. The result of this meeting was a peer-reviewed workshop report that went live this week! In this blog post, we will discuss some of the workshop’s findings at the intersection of climate, biodiversity, and human society.

Climate-biodiversity-human linkages

How do these factors interplay? Underlying anthropogenic drivers, such as economic production and consumption, give rise to direct impacts like land use change, pollution, and overexploitation of natural systems – all of which contribute to climate change and biodiversity loss. These declines, in turn, can reinforce each other. For instance, climate change effects such as temperature increases, precipitation shifts, or extreme events can cause extinctions and erode ecosystem resilience. Associated biodiversity loss then influences the climate system via changes in nutrient cycling, for example. All of this also gives rise to impacts on human livelihoods and well-being, with consequences to across sectors like public health and food production and security.

Minimal tradeoffs, maximal benefits

Some interventions come with tradeoffs. For instance, a common idea is that the planting of forests stores carbon, thus lowering atmospheric C concentrations and limiting climate change. However, the solution is not quite so simple. Large swaths of monoculture forests can increase the risk of pests and diseases as well as limit productivity and take up space for habitat, damaging biodiversity and ecosystem services. At the same time, solutions exist that can benefit both climate and biodiversity by restoring and protecting carbon- and species-rich ecosystems.

There are ways that we can combine measures in order to both limit tradeoffs and gain benefits. A good example is the use of solar farms to generate clean energy, which is necessary for climate objectives. At the same time, these solar farms use large amounts of land, potentially contributing to the clearing of important habitat. However, by implementing grazing and cropping around panels, we can benefit soil carbon stocks and pollinators, while also providing food (and still gaining clean energy). The integration of climate and biodiversity allow us to support solutions that complement each other by balancing tradeoffs and promoting co-benefits.

Transformative change

It is clear that we need to explicitly consider connections between climate, biodiversity, and people in governance and policy decisions in order to develop the most efficient solutions. However, the report notes that this integration will require transformative change in governance systems and in policies, to support higher levels of intersectoral cooperation and inclusive decision-making as well as to create effective incentives. Ultimately, this coincides with a need for an overall shift in society’s collective values. This can involve, for instance, changing from a focus on “development” defined by ever-increasing economic growth to a focus on just, equitable, and resilient development within planetary boundaries.

For more detailed information on the climate-biodiversity nexus and how this interacts with human well-being, take a look at the full scientific outcome from the workshop!

References:

[1] Pörtner, HO et al. 2021. IPBES-IPCC co-sponsored workshop report on biodiversity and climate change; IPBES and IPCC. DOI:10.5281/zenodo.4782538. Access here, full outcome here.

[2] Images generated by IPCC and IPBES. Access here.

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The Convention on Biological Diversity and Biodiversity Day

In the late 1980’s, the United Nations convened a series of working groups and negotiating committees to develop an international treaty to guide sustainable use of and address threats to the Earth’s biological resources. Through this process came the Convention on Biological Diversity, which the United Nations adopted on May 22, 1992, in Nairobi, Kenya [4]. The main objectives of this document are 1) the conservation of biological diversity, 2) the sustainable use of the components of biological diversity, and 3) the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources [5]. The Convention opened for signature on June 5, 1992, at the Rio Earth Summit and entered into force with 168 signatures December 29, 1993 [4]. There are 196 Parties to the Convention, which meet regularly as the Conference of the Parties to review and make decisions about the fulfillment of the Convention. [5, 6]. Since 2001, the United Nations has celebrated Biodiversity Day on May 22 to commemorate the anniversary of the date that the Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted [1].

We’re part of the solution, in 2021 and beyond

In 2021, Biodiversity Day is organized with the slogan: “We’re part of the solution” [2, 8, 15]. This connects to the 2020 slogan, “Our solutions are in nature” and recognizes the role we have in crafting sustainable and just solutions to environmental, ecological, and social challenges [2, 15].

This year’s Biodiversity Day generates momentum and support in advance of the meeting of the Conference of the Parties in October 2021 [2, 6, 14]. During this meeting, Parties will make decisions about a post-2020 global biodiversity framework towards the fulfillment of the 2050 Vision for Biodiversity, where the world is “living in harmony with nature” [2, 7, 14, 15].

Given the COVID-19 pandemic, the International Day for Biological Diversity has been moved online. In this context, the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity asks you to join governments, organizations, and individuals in raising awareness via messages about the importance of biodiversity and how you can be the solution [8, 9]. Be sure to tag @UNBiodiversity and use the hashtags #BiodiversityDay and #ForNature on social media. Also check out different online events, such as the Global Biodiversity Festival.

There are also other ways for you to contribute to international biodiversity goals, even after May 22. Educate yourself and learn how to raise awareness about the value of biodiversity in nature for fostering sustainable human development on a healthy and functioning planet [3, 10, 11, 12, 15]. Make a concrete commitment in line with the reversal of biodiversity loss on the Convention’s Action Agenda tracker, then share your pledge to inspire others and increase ambition [13]!

For the most up-to-date materials on Biodiversity Day and information about biodiversity issues and opportunities, follow @UNBiodiversity on facebook, twitter, instagram, youtube, and linkedin.

References

[1] United Nations General Assembly. 2001. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on the report of the Second Committee. Convention on Biological Diversity. Fifty-fifth session. A/55/582/Add.2. Access here.

[2] The Convention on Biological Diversity. 2021. Overview of the Campaign. Access here.

[3] IPBES. 2019. Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. S. Díaz, J. Settele, E. S. Brondízio E.S., H. T. Ngo, M. Guèze, J. Agard, A. Arneth, P. Balvanera, K. A. Brauman, S. H. M. Butchart, K. M. A. Chan, L. A. Garibaldi, K. Ichii, J. Liu, S. M. Subramanian, G. F. Midgley, P. Miloslavich, Z. Molnár, D. Obura, A. Pfaff, S. Polasky, A. Purvis, J. Razzaque, B. Reyers, R. Roy Chowdhury, Y. J. Shin, I. J. Visseren-Hamakers, K. J. Willis, and C. N. Zayas (eds.). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. Access here.

[4] The Convention on Biological Diversity. 2021. History of the Convention. Access here.

[5] United Nations. 1992. 8. Convention on Biological Diversity. Rio de Janeiro, 5 June 1992. Chapter XXVII Environment. Access here.

[6] The Convention on Biological Diversity. 2021. Conference of the Parties (COP). Access here.

[7] United Nations Environment Programme. 2020. Update of the Zero Draft of the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework: Preparations for the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework. Convention on Biological Diversity. CBD/POST3030/PREP/2/1. Access here.

[8] Mrema, E.M. 2021. Notification: International Day for Biological Diversity 2021. Convention on Biological Diversity. Ref.: SCBD/OES/DAIN/MB/FD/89492. Access here.

[9] The Convention on Biological Diversity. 2021. Messages for the International Day for Biological Diversity, 22 May 2021: “We’re part of the solution”. Access here.

[10] The Convention on Biological Diversity. 2021. Biodiversity Day 2021: Activities. Access here.

[11] United Nations Development Program, NBSAP Forum, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Rare. 2021. Course on Biodiversity Valuation: Communicating the Value of Biodiversity. Access here.

[12] The Convention on Biological Diversity. 2021. Biodiversity and Nature, close but not quite the same. Access here.

[13] The Convention on Biological Diversity. 2021. An agenda for action: Reversing Biodiversity Loss and Promoting Positive Gains to 2030. Sharm El-Sheikh to Kunming Action Agenda for Nature and People. Access here.

[14] The Convention on Biological Diversity. 2021. Preparations for the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework. Access here.

[15] United Nations. 2021. International Day for Biological Diversity 22 May. Access here.

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